汽车专业英语 英语文献

天津科技大学外文资料翻译

天津科技大学

TIANJIN UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

外文资料翻译

专 业：机械设计制造及其自动化

（汽车工程）

* ****

学 号：********

指导教师姓名：贺丽娟

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天津科技大学外文资料翻译

How Car Steering Works

You know that when you turn the steering wheel in your car, the wheels turn.

Cause and effect, right? But a lot of interesting stuff goes on between the

steering wheel and the tires to make this happen.

In this article, we'll see how the two most common types of car steering

systems work: rack-and-pinion and recirculating-ball steering. Then we'll

examine power steering and find out about some interesting future

developments in steering systems, driven mostly by the need to increase the

fuel efficiency of cars. But first, let's see what you have to do turn a car. It's not

quite as simple as you might think!

Turning the Car

You might be surprised to learn that when you turn your car, your front wheels

are not pointing in the same direction.

For a car to turn smoothly, each wheel must follow a different circle. Since the

inside wheel is following a circle with a smaller radius, it is actually making a

tighter turn than the outside wheel. If you draw a line perpendicular to each

wheel, the lines will intersect at the center point of the turn. The geometry of

the steering linkage makes the inside wheel turn more than the outside wheel.

There are a couple different types of steering gears. The most common

are rack-and-pinion and recirculating ball.

Rack-and-pinion Steering

Rack-and-pinion steering is quickly becoming the most common type of

steering on cars, small trucks and SUVs. It is actually a pretty simple

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天津科技大学外文资料翻译

mechanism. A rack-and-pinion gearset is enclosed in a metal tube, with each

end of the rack protruding from the tube. A rod, called a tie rod, connects to

each end of the rack.

The pinion gear is attached to the steering shaft. When you turn the steering

wheel, the gear spins, moving the rack. The tie rod at each end of the rack

connects to the steering arm on the spindle.

The rack-and-pinion gearset does two things:

It converts the rotational motion of the steering wheel into the linear motion

needed to turn the wheels.

It provides a gear reduction, making it easier to turn the wheels.

On most cars, it takes three to four complete revolutions of the steering wheel

to make the wheels turn from lock to lock (from far left to far right).

The steering ratio is the ratio of how far you turn the steering wheel to how far

the wheels turn. For instance, if one complete revolution (360 degrees) of the

steering wheel results in the wheels of the car turning 20 degrees, then the

steering ratio is 360 divided by 20, or 18:1. A higher ratio means that you have

to turn the steering wheel more to get the wheels to turn a given distance.

However, less effort is required because of the higher gear ratio.

Generally, lighter, sportier cars have lower steering ratios than larger cars and

trucks. The lower ratio gives the steering a quicker response -- you don't have

to turn the steering wheel as much to get the wheels to turn a given distance --

which is a desirable trait in sports cars. These smaller cars are light enough

that even with the lower ratio, the effort required to turn the steering wheel is

not excessive.

Some cars have variable-ratio steering, which uses a rack-and-pinion gearset

that has a different tooth pitch (number of teeth per inch) in the center than it

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has on the outside. This makes the car respond quickly when starting a turn

(the rack is near the center), and also reduces effort near the wheel's turning

limits.

Power Rack-and pinion

When the rack-and-pinion is in a power-steering system, the rack has a slightly

different design.

Part of the rack contains a cylinder with a piston in the middle. The piston is

connected to the rack. There are two fluid ports, one on either side of the

piston. Supplying higher-pressure fluid to one side of the piston forces the

piston to move, which in turn moves the rack, providing the power assist.

We'll check out the components that provide the high-pressure fluid, as well as

decide which side of the rack to supply it to, later in the article. First, let's take a

look at another type of steering.

Recirculating-ball Steering

Recirculating-ball steering is used on many trucks and SUVs today. The

linkage that turns the wheels is slightly different than on a rack-and-pinion

system.

The recirculating-ball steering gear contains a worm gear. You can image the

gear in two parts. The first part is a block of metal with a threaded hole in it.

This block has gear teeth cut into the outside of it, which engage a gear that

moves the pitman arm. The steering wheel connects to a threaded rod, similar

to a bolt, that sticks into the hole in the block. When the steering wheel turns, it

turns the bolt. Instead of twisting further into the block the way a regular bolt

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天津科技大学外文资料翻译

would, this bolt is held fixed so that when it spins, it moves the block, which

moves the gear that turns the wheels.

Instead of the bolt directly engaging the threads in the block, all of the threads

are filled with ball bearings that recirculate through the gear as it turns. The

balls actually serve two purposes: First, they reduce friction and wear in the

gear; second, they reduce slop in the gear. Slop would be felt when you

change the direction of the steering wheel -- without the balls in the steering

gear, the teeth would come out of contact with each other for a moment,

making the steering wheel feel loose.

The recirculating ball mechanism has the advantage of a much greater

mechanical advantage, so that it was found on larger, heavier vehicles while

the rack and pinion was originally limited to smaller and lighter ones; due to the

almost universal adoption of power steering, however, this is no longer an

important advantage, leading to the increasing use of rack and pinion on

newer cars. The recirculating ball design also has a perceptible lash, or "dead

spot" on center, where a minute turn of the steering wheel in either direction

does not move the steering apparatus; this is easily adjustable via a screw on

the end of the steering box to account for wear, but it cannot be entirely

eliminated because it will create excessive internal forces at other positions

and the mechanism will wear very rapidly. This design is still in use in trucks

and other large vehicles, where rapidity of steering and direct feel are less

important than robustness, maintainability, and mechanical advantage.

Power steering in a recirculating-ball system works similarly to a

rack-and-pinion system. Assist is provided by supplying higher-pressure fluid

to one side of the block.

Power Steering

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Power steering helps drivers steer vehicles by augmenting steering effort of

the steering wheel. Hydraulic or electric actuators add controlled energy to the

steering mechanism, so the driver needs to provide only modest effort

regardless of conditions. Power steering helps considerably when a vehicle is

stopped or moving slowly. Also, power steering provides some feedback of

forces acting on the front wheels to give an ongoing sense of how the wheels

are interacting with the road; this is typically called "rοad feel".

Representative power steering systems for cars augment steering effort via an

actuator, a hydraulic cylinder, which is part of a servo system. These systems

have a direct mechanical connection between the steering wheel and the

linkage that steers the wheels. This means that power-steering system failure

(to augment effort) still permits the vehicle to be steered using manual effort

alone.

Other power steering systems (such as those in the largest off-road

construction vehicles) have no direct mechanical connection to the steering

linkage; they require power. Systems of this kind, with no mechanical

connection, are sometimes called "drive by wire" or "steer by wire", by analogy

with aviation's "fly-by-wire". In this context, "wire" refers to electrical cables that

carry power and data, not thin-wire-rope mechanical control cables.

In other power steering systems, electric motors provide the assistance

instead of hydraulic systems. As with hydraulic types, power to the actuator

(motor, in this case) is controlled by the rest of the power-steering system.

Some construction vehicles have a two-part frame with a rugged hinge in the

middle; this hinge allows the front and rear axles to become non-parallel to

steer the vehicle. Opposing hydraulic cylinders move the halves of the frame

relative to each other to steer.

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天津科技大学外文资料翻译

Most power steering systems work by using a hydraulic system to steer the

vehicle's wheels. The hydraulic pressure typically comes from a gerotor or

rotary vane pump driven by the vehicle's engine. A double-acting hydraulic

cylinder applies a force to the steering gear, which in turn steers the

roadwheels. The steering wheel operates valves to control flow to the cylinder.

The more torque the driver applies to the steering wheel and column, the more

fluid the valves allow through to the cylinder, and so the more force is applied

to steer the wheels.

Since the hydraulic pumps are positive-displacement type, the flow rate they

deliver is directly proportional to the speed of the engine. This means that at

high engine speeds the steering would naturally operate faster than at low

engine speeds. Because this would be undesirable, a restricting orifice and

flow-control valve direct some of the pump's output back to the hydraulic

reservoir at high engine speeds. A pressure relief valve prevents a dangerous

build-up of pressure when the hydraulic cylinder's piston reaches the end of its

stroke.

Some modern systems also include an electronic control valve to reduce the

hydraulic supply pressure as the vehicle's speed increases; this is

variable-assist power steering.

The steering booster is arranged so that should the booster fail, the steering

will continue to work (although the wheel will feel heavier). Loss of power

steering can significantly affect the handling of a vehicle. Each vehicle owner's

manual gives instructions for inspection of fluid levels and regular maintenance

of the power steering system.

The working liquid, also called "hydraulic fluid" or "oil", is the medium by which

pressure is transmitted. Common working liquids are based on mineral oil.

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天津科技大学外文资料翻译

Now let's take a look at the other components that make up a power-steering

system.

There are a couple of key components in power steering in addition to the

rack-and-pinion or recirculating-ball mechanism.

Pump

The hydraulic power for the steering is provided by a rotary-vane pump (see

diagram below). This pump is driven by the car's engine via a belt and pulley. It

contains a set of retractable vanes that spin inside an oval chamber.

As the vanes spin, they pull hydraulic fluid from the return line at low pressure

and force it into the outlet at high pressure. The amount of flow provided by the

pump depends on the car's engine speed. The pump must be designed to

provide adequate flow when the engine is idling. As a result, the pump moves

much more fluid than necessary when the engine is running at faster speeds.

The pump contains a pressure-relief valve to make sure that the pressure does

not get too high, especially at high engine speeds when so much fluid is being

pumped.

Rotary Valve

A power-steering system should assist the driver only when he is exerting

force on the steering wheel (such as when starting a turn). When the driver is

not exerting force (such as when driving in a straight line), the system shouldn't

provide any assist. The device that senses the force on the steering wheel is

called the rotary valve.

The key to the rotary valve is a torsion bar. The torsion bar is a thin rod of

metal that twists when torque is applied to it. The top of the bar is connected to

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the steering wheel, and the bottom of the bar is connected to the pinion or

worm gear (which turns the wheels), so the amount of torque in the torsion bar

is equal to the amount of torque the driver is using to turn the wheels. The

more torque the driver uses to turn the wheels, the more the bar twists.

The input from the steering shaft forms the inner part of a spool-valve

assembly. It also connects to the top end of the torsion bar. The bottom of the

torsion bar connects to the outer part of the spool valve. The torsion bar also

turns the output of the steering gear, connecting to either the pinion gear or the

worm gear depending on which type of steering the car has.

Animation showing what happens inside the rotary valve when you first start to

turn the steering wheel

As the bar twists, it rotates the inside of the spool valve relative to the outside.

Since the inner part of the spool valve is also connected to the steering shaft

(and therefore to the steering wheel), the amount of rotation between the inner

and outer parts of the spool valve depends on how much torque the driver

applies to the steering wheel.

When the steering wheel is not being turned, both hydraulic lines provide the

same amount of pressure to the steering gear. But if the spool valve is turned

one way or the other, ports open up to provide high-pressure fluid to the

appropriate line.

It turns out that this type of power-steering system is pretty inefficient. Let's

take a look at some advances we'll see in coming years that will help improve

efficiency.

Electric power steering

Electric power steering (EPS or EPAS) uses an electric motor to assist the

driver of a vehicle. Sensors detect the position and torque of the steering

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column, and a computer module applies assistive torque via the motor, which

connects to either the steering gear or steering column. This allows varying

amounts of assistance to be applied depending on driving conditions.

Engineers can therefore tailor steering-gear response to variable-rate and

variable-damping suspension systems, optimizing ride, handling, and steering

for each vehicle. On Fiat group cars the amount of assistance can be regulated

using a button named "CITY" that switches between two different assist curves,

while most other EPS systems have variable assist. These give more

assistance as the vehicle slows down, and less at faster speeds. In the event

of component failure that fails to provide assistance, a mechanical linkage

such as a rack and pinion serves as a back-up in a manner similar to that of

hydraulic systems.

Electric systems have an advantage in fuel efficiency because there is no

belt-driven hydraulic pump constantly running, whether assistance is required

or not, and this is a major reason for their introduction. Another major

advantage is the elimination of a belt-driven engine accessory, and several

high-pressure hydraulic hoses between the hydraulic pump, mounted on the

engine, and the steering gear, mounted on the chassis. This greatly simplifies

manufacturing and maintenance. By incorporating electronic stability control

electric power steering systems can instantly vary torque assist levels to aid

the driver in corrective maneuvers. The first electric power steering system

appeared on the Suzuki Cervo in 1988. Today a number of manufacturers use

electric power steering.

Electrically variable gear ratio systems

In 2000, Honda launched the S2000 Type V equipped with the world's first

electric power variable gear ratio steering (VGS) system. In 2003, Toyota

introduced their own "Variable Gear Ratio Steering (VGRS)" system

introduced on the Lexus LX 470 and Landcruiser Cygnus, and also

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incorporated the electronic stability control system to alter steering gear ratios

and steering assist levels. In 2003, BMW introduced their "Active Steering"

system on the 5-series.

This system should not be confused with variable assist power steering, which

varies steering assist torque, not steering ratios, nor with systems where the

gear ratio is only varied as a function of steering angle. These last are more

accurately called non-linear types; a plot of steering-wheel position versus axle

steering angle is progressively curved (and symmetrical).

Automobile safety

For safety reasons all modern cars feature a collapsible steering column

(energy absorbing steering column) which will collapse in the event of a heavy

frontal impact to avoid excessive injuries to the driver. Airbags are also

generally fitted as standard. Non-collapsible steering columns fitted to older

vehicles very often impaled drivers in frontal crashes, particularly when the

steering box or rack was mounted in front of the front axle line, at the front of

the crumple zone. This was particularly a problem on vehicles that had a rigid

separate chassis frame, with no crumple zone. Most modern vehicle steering

boxes/racks are mounted behind the front axle on the front bulkhead, at the

rear of the front crumple zone.

Collapsible steering columns were invented by Bela Barenyi and were

introduced in the 1959 Mercedes-Benz W111 Fintail, along with crumple zones.

This safety feature first appeared on cars built by General Motors after an

extensive and very public lobbying campaign enacted by Ralph Nader. Ford

started to install collapsible steering columns in 1968.

Audi used a retractable steering wheel and seat belt tensioning system called

procon-ten, but it has since been discontinued in favor of airbags and

pyrotechnic seat belt pre-tensioners.

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The Future of Power Steering

Since the power-steering pump on most cars today runs constantly, pumping

fluid all the time, it wastes horsepower. This wasted power translates into

wasted fuel.

You can expect to see several innovations that will improve fuel economy. One

of the coolest ideas on the drawing board is the "steer-by-wire" or

"drive-by-wire" system. These systems would completely eliminate the

mechanical connection between the steering wheel and the steering, replacing

it with a purely electronic control system. Essentially, the steering wheel would

work like the one you can buy for your home computer to play games. It would

contain sensors that tell the car what the driver is doing with the wheel, and

have some motors in it to provide the driver with feedback on what the car is

doing. The output of these sensors would be used to control a motorized

steering system. This would free up space in the engine compartment by

eliminating the steering shaft. It would also reduce vibration inside the car.

General Motors has introduced a concept car, the Hy-wire, that features this

type of driving system. One of the most exciting things about the drive-by-wire

system in the GM Hy-wire is that you can fine-tune vehicle handling without

changing anything in the car's mechanical components -- all it takes to adjust

the steering is some new computer software. In future drive-by-wire vehicles,

you will most likely be able to configure the controls exactly to your liking by

pressing a few buttons, just like you might adjust the seat position in a car

today. It would also be possible in this sort of system to store distinct control

preferences for each driver in the family.

In the past fifty years, car steering systems haven't changed much. But in the

next decade, we'll see advances in car steering that will result in more efficient

cars and a more comfortable ride.

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